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The Role of the Practitioner in the Assessment
Process
Overview of the Assessment Process
Thousands of adults in literacy programs fit the following description.
They are individuals who appear to be able and bright. They have
worked diligently for a year, sometimes longer, to learn to read
to improve comprehension skills, to improve their writing and spelling,
or perhaps, to improve work skills. Yet, they make little, if any,
progress. Could any of these individuals be having learning problems
because of a learning disability?
Practitioners need informal measures for determining whether or
not a particular learner may have a learning disability. Given that
most participants in literacy programs are unable to afford formal
testing administered by trained professionals, the information gathered
by the practitioner can be particularly valuable for planning a
practical approach to helping the individual meet realistic goals.
In fact, the information gathered through an informal process can
be as useful in planning instruction as scores from standardized
testing.
The process of identifying an individual who may have a learning
disability begins with a simple screening. This
screening process cannot alone be used to diagnose the individual's
situation. This step of gathering relevant information can be accomplished
through observation, interviews, self-reporting, the use of a screening
tool (a brief test and/or written answers to questions), and through
a review of school, medical, or employment records. With this information
in hand, the screener - typically an individual who does not have
a specialized background in learning disabilities - plans and executes
an individualized program for the learner, often after consulting
with a qualified professional or professional organization on how
to proceed. The information gathered through the screening process
can also be a valuable introduction to the formal process of assessment.
Consulting A Qualified Professional:
If it is determined through screening that there is a strong possibility
that the individual has a learning disability, a formal
assessment can be undertaken. A formal assessment is carried
out by a professionally-trained educational diagnostician, counselor,
psychiatrist, or psychologist who selects, administers, and interprets
different kinds of tests (educational, vocational,
psychological, and neurological instruments) from which a diagnosis
and recommendations are made. It is through a comprehensive
assessment that an individual's current level of development is
identified and a plan for meeting the individual's needs is developed.
While the literacy practitioner may be neither prepared nor qualified
to diagnose an individual with a suspected learning disability,
the practitioner can play a valuable role in getting the assessment
process set in motion. The qualified professional may first refer
to the screening in order to plan which tests to administer. Or,
if formal assessment does not follow, the practitioner's screening
results become one of the most important sources for developing
a plan to help the individual with suspected learning disabilities
achieve his/her goals.
SCREENING
Screening is an initial step in the process of gathering pertinent
information about the individual with a suspected learning disability.
The literacy practitioner can attain much valuable information if
s/he knows what to look for. In terms of academic performance and
related behaviors, what kinds of observations will
the literacy practitioner be noting? The following characteristics
tend to be displayed in varying degrees by individuals with learning
disabilities. The lists are a good sampling, but, of course, are
not all-inclusive. Making written notes of these observed characteristics,
as well as collecting written samples of the learner's work, is
very valuable to the screening process.
Does the individual show unexpected underachievement,
but demonstrates evidence of at least average ability in some intellectual
or social areas?
Does the individual display signs of poor vision or hearing?
Or, are you observing the effects of auditory or visual processing
deficits?
In terms of academic performance, is the individual having
problems in the following areas: Reading (oral and silent), Expressive
Language (writing, spelling, handwriting), Math?
Are you observing behaviors/psychological manifestations
that can interfere with the learning process?
To help the literacy practitioner think through the answers to
these questions, three broad areas of learning-related problems
are briefly described below.
1. Vision/Hearing and/or Auditory/Visual
Processing Problems
If vision or hearing problems are suspected, it is important that
the individual be examined by an eye (optometrist) or hearing (audiologist)
specialist. It may be determined that there is a physical problem,
leading to prescribed eye glasses or a hearing device. Many individuals
with learning disabilities have poor eye muscle coordination for
focusing and refocusing at close range, have had hearing problems
since early childhood that have affected their ability to learn,
and may also have auditory and visual processing and memory problems.
Barring a purely physical cause, the following
problems can be considered indicators of a possible learning disability:
- Eyes water and/or become red after a short time of work
- Complains of tired eyes; rubs eyes a lot
- Puts head on desk to read
- Oral reading is choppy: words skipped, endings left off, frequent
repetitions
- Loses place when reading
- Talks loudly
- Often asks you to repeat yourself
- Comments about getting headaches after a short time working
at reading or writing
- Squints and peers close to see print
- Peers at work on desk from an angle
- Lifts eyes from page frequently to glance around
- Closes one eye while reading or writing
- Misunderstands you
- Turns an ear towards you when you speak
2. Academic Performance
Reading: The learner shows marked difficulty in
oral and silent reading.
- Reading patterns are slow and deliberate
- Skips words, re-reads lines in oral reading
- May substitute, delete, add or transpose letters and syllables
- Loses place on page
- Avoids reading out loud
- Reads words or syllables backwards; e.g., was
for saw, net for ten
- When reading silently, appears to be re-reading or reading very
slowly (this can be attributable to poor visual processing)
- Cannot use basic phonics to sound out words
- Reads with an overdependence on guessing and, as such, comprehension
is compromised, evidenced in errors in answering questions related
to the text
- Reading style is halty and jerky
Expressive Language: (Writing, Spelling,including
Handwriting Skills)
- Problems with grammar and syntax
- Writes letters or numbers backwards or upside down, e.g., b
for d, p for q,
u for n, M
for W
- Spells words differently in the same document
- Weak visual memory for spelling
- Spells phonetically, cannot remember spelling patterns, e.g.,
Munday,Toosday, Winsday,
Thirsday
- Writing reveals poor organization
- Inconsistent memory for sentence mechanics
- Reverses letters in spelling, e.g., Friday
becomes Firday, girl becomes
gril
- Mixes capitaland lower case letters inappropriately, e.g., SunDay,
MoNey
- Poor handwriting; letter formation inconsistent
- Punctuation errors are common
- Continuously whispers to self while writing
Math:
- Trouble remembering math facts and procedures
- Demonstrates inconsistent mastery of math facts (addition/subtraction,
multiplication/division) due to problems with long-term memory
- Difficulty copying numbers and working with numbers in columns
- Trouble with left/right orientation
- Cannot remember in which direction to work in carrying out simple
math
- Confuses similar numbers or transposes numbers
- Reads numbers backwards, e.g., 18 for 81,
21 for 12
- Trouble following sequential procedures and directions with
multiple steps
In terms of academic performance, what practitioners/instructors
are looking for are patterns of errors exhibited
by the student's work. Error patterns are important in helping to
differentiate between the adult with possible learning disabilities
and the adult whose low achievement is the result of other factors.
Therefore, it is important that practitioners familiarize themselves
with typical error patterns.
3. Behaviors/Psychological Manifestations
The following behaviors may indicate the possibility of a learning
disability if observed over a considerable period of time.
Attention: difficulty concentrating/focusing;
easily distracted; difficult sitting still/ restless; displays off-task
behavior; lack of productivity; seemingly confused at times; fidgets;
impatient; talks excessively; impulsive (acting without thinking
and without seeming concern for consequences, saying one thing and
meaning another, blurts out answers, interrupts); displays memory
problems
Organization: poor organization of physical environment
and time, as well as concepts and tasks, including sequencing, prioritizing,
grouping or categorizing, grasping similarities between items, relating
parts to the whole; orientation problems/difficulty with directionality:
left/right, up/down, and north/south/east/west
Other General Behaviors: variable or unpredictable
performance; difficulty absorbing major ideas from an oral presentations
(instructions, lectures, discussions); information must be repeated
and reviewed before understanding is achieved; problems with following
directions; difficulty retaining information without excessive rehearsal
and practice; cannot recall familiar facts on command, yet can do
so at other times; visual difficulties, auditory difficulties, poor
decision-making skills; difficulty drawing conclusions, making inferences,
dealing with abstractions; poor motivation and/or extreme drive
to complete a task; most comfortable with familiar, unchanging settings;
perseveration (staying on task or using a procedure past the point
of its being appropriate); rigidity
Social: social situations difficult, noticeably
out of place in group setting; misinterprets what others say, tone
of voice, facial expressions, the subtleties in social situations;
lacks awareness of one's personal space; difficulty in establishing
friendships
It is important to note that many of these observed learning characteristics
and behaviors result from problems that the individual experiences
in the areas of visual discrimination and visual
memory, as well as auditory discrimination
and auditory memory. Visual discrimination refers
to the learner's ability to detect differences in forms, letters,
and words. Visual memory is concerned with the individual's ability
to retain a full mental image of what s/he has seen. In both instances,
the central nervous system is not processing symbols correctly.
Auditory discrimination involves the ability to recognize the differences
between sounds. Auditory memory refers to the learner's ability
to store and recall what has been heard. The result of an auditory
deficit is that the individual fails to hear vowel or soft consonant
sounds in spoken words. Auditory and visual deficits
affect one's ability to develop and use language effectively; the
effects are apparent in reading, writing, and spelling skills.
Other Means of Information-Gathering
Samples of the learner's work and observations of the individual's
learning characteristics and behaviors can be recorded on an observation
checklist. In addition, the information-gathering process
can include (1) reviews of school, medical, and
employment records (wherein patterns of problems may be evident
and should be noted); (2) a screening interview
during which the individual can be encouraged to self-report problems
in academic, social, medical, and employment areas, including similar
information about family members to help determine possible familial
factors known to correlate with learning disabilities; (3) a screening
questionnaire; and (4) a screening tool
(an instrument for which the administrator should be trained to
use). For excellent examples of an observation checklist and a screening
questionnaire, see the Learning Disabilities Association of Canada
(LDAC) publication listed under"References."
For samples of screening tools, see the Tennessee Literacy Resource
Center's publication, listed in "References." Operating
under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education and working
with Tennessee educators, the Tennessee Literacy Resource Center,
University of Tennessee Knoxville, established a research project
that reviewed a variety of screening tools used for "identifying
and helping adults who find learning difficult," reporting strengths
and limitations of each tool.
Heading the list of the Tennessee Literacy Resource Center's recommendations
for screening incoming literacy participants is "Informal Observation
and Work Samples." The research group found that careful observation
was so valuable to the assessment process that it recommended training
to sharpen the practitioner's observation skills. "After careful
observation, and using a checklist or other documentation, we were
able to talk with students about how they learn, the strategies
they use, and their preferences, in a much more focused and productive
manner." Obviously, the literacy practitioner is in a position to
make valuable input into the assessment process.
While formal testing provides the most accurate basis for planning
an individualized learning program, the observations noted in the
informal screening process serve a number of purposes:
- Screening sets the stage for the practitioner to help learners
with suspected learning disabilities to understand their strengths
and weaknesses and the reasons behind their struggles and difficulties.
- The informal nature of the information gathering process in
screening enables the practitioner to include the learner in determining
appropriate instruction.
- Informal screening opens the door for discussion between the
practitioner and the learner regarding which strategies and/or
interventions, if any, have been tried in the past.
- Screening can help establish the foundation for discussion between
the practitioner and the learner about realistic long-range goals
translated into short-term objectives.
- Screening helps the practitioner identify special materials
and strategies to be used in setting up an individualized learning
situation for the student.
For follow-up, the practitioner needs to be aware of local sources
of testing and other services to which the learner can be referred.
The adult education/adult literacy program/literacy council with
which the practitioner is aligned should have a list of recommended
resources. Depending on the particular locale, these resources may
include (1) the State Vocational Rehabilitation Agency, (2) community
mental health agencies, (3) special education departments, disability
support services offices, counseling, and study skills centers at
universities or local community colleges, (4) educational therapists
or learning specialists in private practice, (5) Orton Dyslexia
Society, (6) the local chapter of Learning Disabilities of America
(LDA), (7) private schools or institutions specializing in learning
disabilities, and (8) university affiliated hospitals.
Literacy practitioners can be a vital link in the overall assessment
process. If the individual with suspected learning disabilities
does not undergo a complete assessment, informal screening provides
the major source of information for establishing both long-range
goals and short-term objectives, and for identifying instructional
methods and materials needed to establish an individualized program
that meets the learner's needs.
REFERENCES:
Cheatham, J., Colvin, R. & Laminack, L. (1993). Tutor:
A collaborative approach to literacy instruction, 7th Edition.
Syracuse, NY: Literacy Volunteers of America, Inc. (315-445-8000)
Laubach Literacy Action (1994). Teaching adults: A literacy
resource book. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press. (800-448-8878)
Learning Disabilities Association of Canada. (1991). Bringing
literacy within reach: Identifying and teaching adults with learning
disabilities. Ottawa, ON: LDAC.
National ALLD Center & HEATH Resource Center (1995). National
resources for adults with learning disabilities. Washington,
DC: American Council on Education. (800-544-3284)
Oddleifson, J. (1994). The Hull specific language disability
screening process: For use in adult basic education. SABES
Mini-Grant. (617-482-9485)
Payne, N. & Jordan, D. (1995). Learning disabilities in
workplace education. Olympia, WA: Payne & Associates. (206-357-6214)
White, C. (Ed.) (1994). If only I could ...Read Write Spell:
Identifying and helping adults who find learning difficult.
Knoxville, TN: Center for Literacy Studies, University of Tennessee.
(615-974-4109)
This material has been prepared under a cooperative agreement
between the Academy for Educational Development (AED) and the National
Institute for Literacy (NIFL), Grant No.X257B30002. Opinions, findings,
conclusions and recommendation expressed herein do not necessarily
reflect the views of AED or NIFL. This information is in the public
domain, unless otherwise indicated. Readers are encouraged to copy;
please credit the National ALLD Center.
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